Wars often happen because different sides
have intractable contradictions, but each
00:07
new war often creates the causes for the next
one. The Hundred Years’ War between England
00:12
and France was no different, causing many
conflicts in Europe. In England, the Wars
00:17
of the Roses stemmed from the Hundred Years’
War.
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The king of England Edward III had five sons
who survived into adulthood. For the first
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time in English history he created duchies
for them, making his sons the biggest landowners
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in the country. On the one hand this strengthened
the crown, but at the same time it formed
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a new class of nobility, which had claims
to the throne and enough power to vie for
01:54
it.
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Edward’s son and heir, the famous Hundred
Years’ War commander Edward the Black Prince
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passed away in 1376, followed by the king
himself a year later. The Black Prince’s
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son was crowned as Richard II. The reign of
this monarch was tumultuous: The Peasants’
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Revolt of 1381, was followed by the Parliamentary
crisis of 1386-1388. Richard’s attempts
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to reach peace with France, his marriage to
the young Valois princess, the lack of an
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heir and the constant strife with the nobility
made him deeply unpopular.
02:33
Richard’s cousin and one of the most powerful
lords - the Duke of Lancaster Henry Bolingbroke
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- was exiled to France in 1398. In May of
1399 Richard embarked on a campaign in Ireland,
02:46
and Henry used the opportunity to return to
England. He immediately garnered enough support
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to dethrone Richard and assumed the throne
as Henry IV, the first Lancastrian king. Richard
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was arrested and died in 1400, while his heir
presumptive, another grandson of Edward III
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- Edmund Mortimer was bypassed. That created
legitimacy problems for the king and he faced
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at least six significant rebellions.
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In 1413 Henry IV succumbed to chronic disease
and was succeeded by his son Henry V. The
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new king was one of the most talented monarchs
of England during this era. In 1415 he renewed
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hostilities with France and won an impressive
victory at Agincourt. In less than a decade
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he conquered more French land than any English
king before him. The Treaty of Troyes was
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signed with France in 1420, according to which
Henry married French princess Catherine. Their
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descendants would inherit the French throne
after the death of Charles VI the mad. Both
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sovereigns passed away in 1422.
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Henry V’s son Henry VI, who was less than
one year old, was crowned as the king of England.
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The King’s uncle, John of Bedford, became
the regent and took command in France, while
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his other uncle Humphrey of Gloucester looked
after English affairs. Although Bedford was
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a decent commander, the French soon rallied
around Joan of Arc and Charles VII was crowned
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as king of France in Rheims. Henry’s coronation
in Paris was a mere symbol.
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By the time Henry reached adulthood and started
governing in 1437, Bedford was dead, and the
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situation in France was untenable. The king
was weak and easily swayed by his nobles,
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and at that point the peace party led by Edmund
of Somerset and William of Suffolk had more
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influence on the king than the war party of
Gloucester and Richard of York. The sides
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agreed to peace at Tours in 1444. According
to their agreement, Henry was to marry Charles’
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niece Margaret of Anjou and return Maine and
Anjou to France. The marriage and the peace
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conditions were unpopular in England.
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Among those who protested was Gloucester and
that gave Henry a cause to imprison his uncle
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in 1447. Gloucester died shortly after and
this weakened the war party even more. Richard,
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who commanded the English lands in France,
was stripped of his office and sent to govern
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Ireland, which was an exile.
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Somerset and Suffolk became dukes in this
period. However, Suffolk was exiled under
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popular pressure and then murdered. Hostilities
with France were renewed and Somerset, who
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was appointed the commander in Normandy, lost
all the northern holdings save for Calais
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by 1450 and returned to England.
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He and Queen Margaret had the king under their
influence. The prestige of the monarchy was
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at an all-time low. The Hundred Years’ War
impoverished England, the losses in France
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were hard to swallow, and the nobles who lost
their lands on the continent were unhappy.
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At the same time, all the duchies created
in the last century had become too strong
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and independent, and the dukes often had personal
retinues larger than that of the king.
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At this point it is essential to show you
the family tree of the Plantagenet dynasty,
06:46
as many grandsons of Edward III controlled
these duchies, ushering in the era of what
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is controversially known as bastard feudalism.
This era was characterized by the loyalty
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of the soldiers being to their lords, rather
than the king. The nobles would use that to
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procure offices, lands, and finances from
the king. These lords and their heirs would
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play a central role throughout the Wars of
the Roses.
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Richard, who had a strong claim to the throne
as a great-grandson of Edward III, used the
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circumstances to return from exile in 1452.
Although many came to his banner and demanded
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Somerset’s arrested, the queen’s party
still was stronger, and Margaret’s pregnancy
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made her position even more secure. The situation
would change in 1453: affected by the loss
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of Bordeaux and Aquitaine, the king suffered
a mental breakdown and became unresponsive.
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Scholars still argue about the nature of his
illness, but it is clear that Henry VI lost
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the remainder of his political power.
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In the north, two noble families, the Nevilles
and Percys, used the lack of central power
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to renew a feud, and as Somerset supported
the latter, the Nevilles allied with Richard.
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By 1454 Richard had enough backing to become
the Royal Protector and appoint his supporters
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to offices, while Somerset was arrested.
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However, in 1455 the king recovered, and queen
Margaret managed to influence him yet again.
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Richard’s decisions were rolled back, and
he was exiled. This time the Duke of York
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wasn’t going to take it, and he raised an
army to move to London. The conflict that
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would be later called the Wars of the Roses
because of the heraldic badges used by the
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Lancasters and the Yorks became inevitable.
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Henry knew that he would receive no support
in London and moved out to a town called St.
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Albans with his 2 thousand men, where an at
least 5 thousand strong Yorkist army was waiting
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for him. Richard wasn’t ready to dethrone
Henry, so negotiations started, but as the
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latter refused to surrender Somerset, the
Yorkists attacked. The Lancastrian army, led
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in battle by the Duke of Buckingham, took
up defensive positions around St Albans’
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defences - primarily the gates on Sopwell
and Shropshire Lanes, while the king was in
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the market square. Meanwhile, York’s army
drew up in a line east of the town in the
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Key Field, behind the gardens of Hollywell
Street, the market square and St Peter’s
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square. At 10AM Warwick, Salisbury and York
simultaneously attacked the gates on both
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Shropshire and Sopwell Lane.
Due to its unexpected and swift nature, the
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attack succeeded at first, with the Yorkists
pushing onto the city streets. However, as
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it became apparent that an attack was taking
place, more men rushed to defend these strong
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points, and the narrow streets caused the
mass of Yorkists to suffer heavy losses. As
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the fighting threatened to bog down into a
grinding stalemate, the Earl of Warwick disengaged
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from the battle and rode to the rear, where
a rearguard was waiting in reserve. He then
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led them in a flanking maneuver through the
gardens near the market square, successfully
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remaining undetected as he did so. With a
blast of his trumpeters, the 25 year old Warwick
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charged and smashed the surprised Lancastrian
line in two.
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Hearing of this breach and fearing an attack
from their rear, the defenders of the gates
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now broke their lines and fled towards the
market square. More Yorkist forces now entered
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the city through the undefended gates. In
the square, the Lancastrian remnants attempted
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to rally, but were prevented from doing so
by the devastating short-range fire of Yorkist
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archers, who continuously showered the remaining
Lancastrians with missiles.
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Many Lancastrian commanders, among them Somerset,
were killed, while the king was captured.
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Richard returned him to London and was appointed
the Protector by Parliament.
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By that time Margaret gave birth to Edward
and became the leader of the Lancastrian party.
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It seemed that both sides were shocked by
St. Albans as hostilities continued only in
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the form of Percy-Neville feud between 1456
and 1459. Henry attempted to reconcile the
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parties on a few occasions, but the suspicions
were too strong, and in the Fall of 1459,
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the sides clashed once again.
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This time the Lancastrians gained the upper
hand, and the Yorkists were forced to find
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refuge in Calais and Ireland. The Yorkists
recovered quickly and returned to England
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in the Summer of 1460. The King’s forces
were defeated at Northampton, and Henry was
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captured. Richard attempted to claim the throne,
but even his staunchest supporters refused.
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Instead, the so-called Act of Accord was adopted,
according to which, Henry VI would rule for
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life, but would be succeeded by Richard of
York.
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The Queen was willing to fight for her son’s
inheritance and was gathering her forces in
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the north. Richard moved toward the Lancastrian
troops to prevent their recruitment efforts,
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but his enemies were already on the way, and
their 18 thousand blockaded his 5 to 10 thousand
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strong force near Sandal castle. What happened
next is still debated, but his next move was
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an attempt to sally out of the castle and
attack the Lancastrian forces, a move which
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seems in hindsight to have been incredibly
ill advised and rash. Many scholars have attempted
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to explain this move by Richard. Theories
range from simple miscalculation and rashness
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on Richard’s part, to Lancastrian trickery.
It said that Sir Andrew Trollope sent in pretend
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deserters to Sandal Castle, proclaiming that
their ‘former’ commander was going to
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change sides. The Lancastrian forces also
apparently showed false colours in order to
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trick Richard of York into thinking his reinforcements
had arrived.
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Whatever prompted it, Richard chose to ride
out from the castle and fight, rather than
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withstanding the trials of a siege, which
would further deplete his provisions. After
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marching down the modern day Manygates Lane
towards the Lancastrian forces, who were to
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the north, York was cut off from his castle
from behind and surrounded, while he engaged
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the enemy frontally. His numerically inferior
forces were soundly defeated, and York himself
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was killed, probably being unhorsed, wounded
and killed during a fight to the death.
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In early 1461 his son Edward became the leader
of the Yorkists. In February he defeated a
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Lancastrian army at Mortimer’s Cross. Meanwhile,
a smaller Yorkist force under Warwick was
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defeated at St. Albans by the army commanded
by the Queen. Henry VI was recaptured by the
14:21
Lancastrians. Edward learned about this defeat
and moved south where he united with the remainder
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of Warwick’s troops.
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As Lancastrian soldiers committed atrocities
in the area, Margaret and Henry lost all their
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support and decided to move to the north.
That allowed Edward to enter London in March
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and take the throne as Edward IV. The showdown
was imminent.
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Both sides continued to recruit troops over
the next few weeks. Edward left London on
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the 13th and arrived in Nottingham on the
22nd. Here he received the news that the 30
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to 35 thousand Lancastrian troops commanded
by Somerset were to the south of the city
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of York. Edward had less than 30 thousand.
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On the 28th of March King Edward sent FitzWalter
to secure the bridge over the Aire River,
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near Ferrybridge. However, Fitzwalter was
ambushed by Clifford’s cavalry. Many Yorkists
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were massacred or drowned.
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King Henry had sent a messenger to negotiate,
but his offer was refused. Edward knew that
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the main Lancastrian forces led by Somerset
were waiting two miles away, ready to crush
15:45
the Yorkists if they pushed Clifford away
and crossed the river. He sent a vanguard
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under Suffolk, which managed to push the Lancastrians
back to the end of the bridge. Edward then
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marched with the main force to Ferrybridge
and led his men personally to Suffolk’s
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aid.
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To stop the Yorkist advance, the Lancastrians
destroyed the bridge, but the former constructed
16:09
a narrow raft to ferry across. This raft was
captured by the Lancastrians, and the fight
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continued in the area for some time, until
the Yorkists managed to cross the river to
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the north, at Castleford and set up camp.
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At dawn on the 29th of March, both armies
found themselves in a snowstorm. At eleven
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in the morning, the Yorkists marched northward
and encamped on the hill ten miles south of
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York, with their backs to the village of Saxton.
Edward put his men in formation - their lines
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stretched for a mile along the ridge. At the
same time, the Lancastrians moved north and
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took positions to the north of the Yorkists
on high ground a hundred feet above them,
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on the meadowland to the south of Towton.
Part of their cavalry was hidden in the forest
17:03
to the west of the Yorkist positions. The
Lancastrians had the advantage of the high
17:09
ground. The Yorkist position was shaky, as
any retreat would trap them along the river.
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Edward had artillery, but the weather conditions
did not allow its usage.
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Somerset didn’t want to descend from the
high ground and waited for the Yorkists to
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approach. The battle started with the archers
exchanging volleys. However the wind was blowing
17:34
into the faces of the Lancastrian archers,
and they were unable to see the enemy properly.
17:40
Their arrows fell short of the mark, and according
to the sources, all they could hear through
17:45
the whirlwind was the laughter of their counterparts.
A hail of counter-volleys accompanied this:
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the Yorkists were gathering thousands of enemy
arrows and were firing them back at them,
17:58
retreating after each volley to avoid the
return fire. The Lancastrians suffered heavy
18:04
losses and were forced to descend from the
hill, taking up melee weapons and charging.
18:09
The Yorkist archers sent a few more volleys
and then retreated behind their man-at-arms.
18:17
As the main Lancaster force charged into the
Yorkist army, a fierce melee began across
18:24
the line. At the same time, the hidden flanking
force attacked the left flank of Edward’s
18:30
army, did significant damage and almost routed
it. Edward himself led the reserves and stabilized
18:36
the situation on the left side. Still, the
Lancastrians outnumbered their enemies and
18:43
slowly pushed them back. It was then that
the forces send by Norfolk to assist Edward
18:49
arrived. It is not clear if Edward gave an
order or if the commander of this unit took
18:56
the initiative, but these troops attacked
the Lancastrians in the flank. Soon Henry’s
19:02
forces were routed. Sources claim that 20
thousand Lancastrians and up to 10 thousand
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Yorkists were killed, making Towton the bloodiest
battle fought on English soil.
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After the decisive victory at Towton in 1461,
Edward IV returned to London for his coronation,
19:25
while Henry VI alongside his wife Margaret
and son Edward fled to Scotland. The Lancastrian
19:32
party still controlled part of Northumberland
and Edward left Richard of Warwick, aptly
19:39
nicknamed the Kingmaker for his role in the
rise of the Yorks, to deal with the last remnants
19:45
of the resistance. By 1463, Warwick retook
all of the castles belonging to the Lancastrian
19:50
nobles and returned to the South. As Edward’s
position was strong and he decided to forgive
19:57
some of his past enemies, among them Henry
Somerset and Ralph Percy.
20:04
King Edward was wary that the Scots supported
the Lancasters throughout the first phase
20:12
of the war, so in 1463 he asked James III
to sign a treaty. The Scots agreed and sent
20:16
their diplomats to York in 1464. To prevent
the agreement from happening, Lancastrian
20:24
nobles nudged by queen Margaret rebelled in
1464 under the leadership of Somerset and
20:31
Percy in Northumberland. Edward sent a force
led by Warwick’s brother John Neville to
20:37
the north, and in May he defeated Somerset
at Hexham. All Lancastrian leaders were killed,
20:43
which ended the rebellion for good. The treaty
with the Scots was signed and queen Margaret
20:51
and Prince Edward escaped to France to their
relative – king Louis XI. In 1465 Henry
20:57
VI was captured in Lancashire and brought
to London, which ushered in a short period
21:04
of peace in England.
During this time Richard Warwick became even
21:09
more powerful, assuming many offices and taking
lands from the Lancastrians. He tried to assert
21:16
influence over the young king, and he saw
the negotiations with Louis in 1466 as one
21:23
of the ways to do it. Warwick tried to marry
Edward with the daughter of the French king
21:29
- Anne and this is when a secret came out:
the king had privately married Elizabeth Woodville
21:34
in 1464, and the fact that she was from the
lower nobility shocked the magnates. On top
21:41
of that, Edward entered a secret alliance
with the Duke of Burgundy Charles the Bold
21:49
negating Warwick’s negotiations with Louis
and embarrassing him. Warwick left the court
21:54
in 1467 and started plotting against the king.
In 1469 one of his captains started a rebellion
21:59
in the North. Edward moved to Nottingham in
the early days of July, but upon learning
22:10
that the rebels outnumbered him decided to
wait for reinforcements. However, Warwick
22:15
entered London a few days after and declared
for the rebels alongside his son-in-law, the
22:21
king’s brother George. The rebels managed
to bypass Nottingham and attacked the royal
22:26
reinforcements at a place called Edgecote
Moor. Supported by Warwick’s troop the rebels
22:32
routed the forces of the king. Edward was
captured on his way back to London.
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Warwick’s attempt to rule in the king’s
name or even dethrone him failed, as Edward
22:44
was still very popular among the nobility
and the commoners. Rebellions forced Warwick
22:50
to release the king, and he ended up with
even less influence over governance than before.
22:56
So, Warwick decided to instigate another rebellion
in Lincolnshire, in March of 1470. This time
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the king moved swiftly, not allowing the rebels
to connect with Warwick. At Losecoat Field
23:09
Edward’s outnumbered army defeated and routed
the rebels.
23:15
This forced Warwick to flee to France, where
Louis reconciled him with Queen Margaret.
23:21
Kingmaker was going to restore Henry VI, who
by now wasn’t in possession of his faculties,
23:27
to the English throne, using French support.
In September Warwick landed in Devon. Initially,
23:33
Edward was planning to march against him,
but Warwick’s brother John, who had remained
23:41
loyal to the king until now, finally rebelled,
and Edward had no other choice but to leave
23:45
England. In October Warrick entered London
and restored Henry to the throne.
23:51
Meanwhile, Edward found refuge in Flanders,
which was under the control of Charles the
23:58
Brave. Although the help he received from
Burgundy was minimal, Edward returned to England
24:05
in March of 1471. Edward used deceit, stating
that he was not vying for the throne and had
24:10
come back to reclaim the Duchy of York. The
city of York allowed him to enter and soon
24:17
he started his march towards London, receiving
reinforcements along the way. Even his disloyal
24:23
brother George rejoined him.
It seems that Warrick was waiting for aid
24:29
from his allies in England and France, so
he avoided battle, as it was expected that
24:36
Edmund Somerset would defend the capital.
However, the Londoners preferred Edward, and
24:42
Somerset was forced to leave either to avoid
rebellion or to unite with Margaret, who was
24:48
going to land in Dorset. Edward took control
of the city and captured Henry VI yet again.
24:53
Edward had between 10 and 15 thousand and
was outnumbered by Warwick’s army, which
25:03
had more than 20 thousand, but he knew that
he needed to attack before the more reinforcements
25:08
could join his enemy from the south. Warwick
was probably hoping to block the road to the
25:13
North, as on the 12th of April his troops
took a position to the north of London at
25:26
a place called Barnet.
The Yorkist army arrived on the evening of
25:30
the 13th and Edward positioned his troops
in the dark, planning to take his stand at
25:37
dawn. It is said that Edward made a mistake
in the dark, underestimating the distance
25:42
between the two armies, and moved his troops
closer to those of Warwick than he had intended.
25:49
This, however, proved fortunate, as the Lancastrians,
who were using their artillery to weaken their
25:54
enemy, were overshooting Edward’s troops,
who moved through most of the night to take
26:01
up positions.
He deployed Hastings on the left and his brother
26:05
Richard, Duke of Gloucester, aged eighteen
at the time, on the right, while George was
26:10
to stay with him in the center. A small reserve
was stationed behind the main line. Opposite
26:15
them, Warwick and his brother John Neville
commanded the center, with Exeter on the right,
26:21
and Oxford on the left side. The Lancastrian
knights were dismounted, as that usually showed
26:27
that they weren’t going to retreat and would
fight among the commoners until the very end.
26:33
As the morning of April 14 dawned, a mist
engulfed the battlefield. The armies failed
26:45
to line-up parallel to each other, with both
ending up in a slight oblique formation in
26:51
relation to the enemy. The Lancastrians had
numbers, so this at first worked to their
26:56
advantage – Oxford’s unit attacked the
flank of Edward’s army. Hastings’ troops
27:02
were soon overwhelmed. Many of them died during
the retreat, while the remainder fled all
27:08
the way to London, claiming that Edward had
already lost the battle. Unfortunately for
27:13
Warwick, a big part of Oxford’s unit remained
detached from the battle, as they attempted
27:20
to loot their fallen enemies, with only part
of it returning to the fight. As visibility
27:25
was still poor, neither side knew about these
events.
27:31
Meanwhile, Gloucester repeated Oxford’s
maneuver, attacking the Lancastrian left and
27:36
pushing Exeter’s troops back. This shifted
the lines yet again. Warwick, aware of this,
27:42
ordered his reserves to support Exeter and
restore the formation, while his forces moved
27:49
against the enemy’s center, and the lines
finally joined. It is said, that the remainder
27:55
of Oxford’s troops returned to the battle
at this point and in the mist ended up behind
28:01
the reserves commanded by John Neville, which
were sent to support Exeter. Apparently, Oxford’s
28:06
coat of arms with stars on it was mistaken
for Edward’s banner with the sun on it.
28:12
The panicked forces of Neville turned towards
Oxford’s troops and unleashed their bows
28:18
killing many of their comrades. As backstabbing
was so common during this period, Oxford and
28:23
his soldiers cried “Treason!” and started
retreating to the north. This cry resonated
28:29
across the Lancastrian line, which ended up
in disarray.
28:35
At this point the fog started to dissipate
and Edward, seeing his enemies panicked, sent
28:39
his in his reserves to move across the right
side and attack the Lancastrians from the
28:45
flank and rear. Soon Warwick and Neville were
killed, while Exeter was captured. Between
28:50
5 and 10 thousand Lancastrians were dead,
while the Yorkists lost less than a thousand.
28:57
Unfortunately for Edward, while this battle
was raging, Queen Margaret and her son - Prince
29:07
Edward landed in Dorset and were greeted by
Somerset. Edward dismissed most of his troops
29:12
and returned to London then learned about
the arrival of Margaret 2 days later. The
29:19
queen knew about the death of Warwick at Barnet,
so she decided to move towards Wales with
29:26
her 6 thousand strong army to connect with
one of her supporters – Jasper Tudor. A
29:31
few of her units were sent to the east to
deceive Edward, but the king was not fooled
29:37
and moved swiftly to the west with his remaining
5 thousand.
29:42
By the time Margaret reached Bristol on the
30th of April, Edward was at Cirencester,
29:48
some 60 kilometers to the Northeast. He attempted
to block the Lancastrian route to the north
29:54
but was outmaneuvered. It was becoming clear
that Margaret was trying to move across the
30:00
River Severn to reach Wales, so Edward sent
a message to the governor of Gloucester, the
30:06
city which controlled the nearest crossing,
ordering him not to let Margaret pass. The
30:11
Lancastrian army had no other choice but to
move to the north and cross near Tewkesbury.
30:18
However, Edward was moving as swiftly as usual,
and his speed made it impossible for the Lancastrians
30:25
to cross the bridge. On the 4th of May, they
were forced to fight him at Tewkesbury. The
30:34
battlefield was full of small woods, hedges,
and marshes which was favorable for the Lancastrians,
30:40
who assumed a defensive position, dividing
their army into three equal parts. Their left
30:47
and rear were protected by a river, while
the center was positioned on a hill. Similarly,
30:52
Edward divided his troops into three groups,
but a small cavalry ambush was placed in the
30:59
woods to the extreme left. The Yorkists also
had a decided advantage in artillery, as the
31:04
army of the queen was forced to abandon its
cannons during the march.
31:11
The battle started with a Yorkist advance
supported by artillery volleys, but as the
31:16
terrain was broken, it was impossible for
Edward to move in a coherent line. Somerset
31:21
attempted to use the divide in the enemy forces
and attacked the unit commanded by Edward.
31:28
Initially, this charge surprised the king
and his troops, and they were pushed back.
31:34
However, the charging Lancastrians ended up
with the ambushing horsemen to their rear,
31:39
and a charge routed them. Most of this unit
was cut down.
31:45
According to the legend, Somerset managed
to return to his main line and killed the
31:51
commander of the center, who failed to support
him. It was clear that the Lancastrians has
31:56
lost and their retreat ended up in a massacre.
Most of the Lancastrian commanders, among
32:02
them Summerset and Prince Edward were executed,
while Margaret was taken captive.
32:08
On the 4th of May 1471, King Edward IV of
the house of York decisively defeated his
32:18
enemies from the house of Lancaster at Tewkesbury.
Most of the Lancastrian leaders, among them
32:25
Prince Edward and Edmund of Somerset, were
killed, while the queen, Margaret of Anjou,
32:32
became captive. The king knew that some Lancastrian
allies, chief among them Jasper Tudor, were
32:37
active in Wales and Northern England, so he
moved his troops to Coventry to prevent these
32:45
enemies from uniting their forces.
Meanwhile, one of the last representatives
32:50
of the Neville family, Thomas landed in Kent
and started recruiting troops on his march
32:58
to London. By the 14th of May, he had 15 thousand
under his command and was attacking London,
33:04
which was critical both as the capital, and
the place the Lancastrian king Henry VI was
33:12
kept prisoner.
The Londoners supported the Yorks at this
33:18
point and not only sent messengers to Edward
IV but also repulsed all the attacks of Thomas
33:23
Neville. Edward was fast as usual and entered
London on the 21st of May. On the same night,
33:30
Henry VI was executed, and Thomas Neville,
who learned about this and the loss at Tewkesbury
33:38
retreated to the South. His troops now demoralized,
the Lancastrian leader decided to surrender.
33:44
At the same time, the rebellion in the North
also fizzled out.
33:52
It would be helpful to look at the family
tree of the English monarchs at this point.
33:57
With the execution of Henry VI, the house
of Lancaster was exterminated, and the remaining
34:05
challenger to Edward IV was 14-year-old Henry
Tudor, who had a weak claim to the English
34:11
throne via his matrilineal ties to the house
of Beaufort, which was descended from the
34:17
son of Edward III, John of Gaunt.
Henry Tudor was with his uncle Jasper in Wales
34:23
at that point, and upon learning about the
events in London, they decided to flee. They
34:29
were heading to France, which was ruled by
Henry’s relative Louis XI, but a storm forced
34:35
them to land in Brittany. Its ruler - duke
Francis II was willing to use Henry as a bargaining
34:41
chip in his dealings with France and England,
so the Tudors became partly hostages, partly
34:48
guests in Brittany. Francis rejected the bribes
and threats from the English king through
34:54
the years.
Still, England entered a period of relative
35:00
peace, as Edward had no real opponents. Louis
XI traditionally supported his enemies, so
35:04
when the Duke of Burgundy offered to help
with the old English claim to the French throne
35:11
with his troops, Edward agreed, and in 1474
they signed a treaty in London. In June of
35:16
1475 the English king landed in Calais, but
received no support from Burgundy. Neither
35:23
Edward nor Louis was willing to fight, so
the former bribed the latter by signing the
35:30
treaty of Picquigny.
During this period the relationships between
35:36
the brothers of the English king Richard of
Gloucester and George of Clarence were tense,
35:42
and in 1478 George was accused of plotting
against Edward, and then, arrested and executed.
35:48
As Richard had supported Edward throughout
the Wars of the Roses, the king elevated Richard
35:55
to effectively control northern England.
Although Edward was just 40 years old, he
36:00
became terminally ill in 1483 and soon passed
away. There are multiple theories about his
36:08
death, and even poisoning is not ruled out,
but in any case, his 12-year-old son Edward
36:15
V became the king, with Richard Gloucester
as the regent. However, on the way to London
36:21
Richard ordered the relatives and closest
allies of the Queen Elizabeth Woodville to
36:28
be arrested. Edward V and his brother were
placed in the London tower. Just a few months
36:33
later, the offspring of Edward IV and Elizabeth
Woodville were declared illegitimate, and
36:40
Richard III claimed the throne. The fate of
Edward V and his brother is unclear, but they
36:45
had disappeared, while the legend of “The
Princes in the Tower” became famous.
36:52
This naked power grab would stir the political
situation in England once again. Queen Elizabeth
37:00
started plotting with the mother of Henry
Tudor – Margaret Beaufort. Margaret’s
37:06
new husband the Earl of Derby Thomas Stanley
and the Duke of Buckingham Henry Stafford
37:12
also became part of this plot.
In the Fall of 1483, Henry Tudor sailed from
37:17
Brittany, while Buckingham started a rebellion
in the West and South of England. However,
37:24
severe storms prevented Henry from landing
in England, while Buckingham was slowed down
37:30
and not able to unite his forces with other
rebels. Soon the rebels were defeated by Richard,
37:35
Buckingham was executed, and Henry had to
return to Brittany. Here he was joined by
37:42
the remainder of the rebel forces. The English
king demanded that Francis of Brittany extradite
37:47
Henry, but his demands were rebuked, so Richard
sent his navy to blockade Brittany. At this
37:50
point duke Francis fell ill, and as his ministers
were willing to surrender the fugitive for
37:57
a bribe, so Henry escaped to France.
At the end of 1484, Henry publicly promised
38:03
to marry the daughter of Edward IV Elizabeth
to unite the dynasties, which strengthened
38:12
his position in England. Henry received support
from the new French king Charles VIII and
38:17
recruited mercenaries. Back in England, Richard’s
wife passed away, and the rumors claimed that
38:24
he wanted to marry his niece, Elizabeth.
This spurred Henry to action and on the 1st
38:30
of August 1485 he set sail from France at
Honfleur and landed in Wales on the 7th without
38:37
meeting any obstacles, despite the fact Richard
had placed small garrisons to blockade a naval
38:45
invasion. As Henry had Welsh blood, many local
lords joined him, and on the 15th he entered
38:50
England near Shrewsbury.
Meanwhile, Richard learned about the landing
38:58
on the 11th of August; it took him a few days
to gather all his forces. On the 16th the
39:03
Yorkist forces started moving towards Leicester.
Although that gave Henry a chance to move
39:10
towards London, he also marched his troops
towards Leicester, as he had allies in the
39:15
area and needed their help to win. Gathering
these allies, Henry moved closer to Richard.
39:21
On the 21st the armies encamped to the south
of Bosworth, with Richard taking Ambion hill,
39:32
while Henry stopped at a place called White
Moors. Thomas Stanley seemingly promised to
39:38
join both sides but instead made camp at a
hill called Dadlington to the south of Henry
39:43
and Richard. The Tudors had more than 5 thousand
troops, while the Yorks probably fielded an
39:49
army closer to 10 thousand. Stanley’s 5
thousand were a wildcard.
39:56
In the morning of the 22nd, Henry arrayed
most of his forces in one large unit commanded
40:02
by the Lancastrian veteran of the battle of
Barnet, John of Oxford, while he led a small
40:09
reserve. The Tudor army started marching towards
their numerically superior enemy. Richard
40:14
was surprised by this as he expected Henry
to take a defensive stance. The battle was
40:21
not beginning according to his expectations.
Still, he managed to get his army into three
40:27
groups: John of Norfolk commanded the right,
Percy of Northumberland the left, while the
40:33
king was leading the center.
While the Tudors were getting closer, the
40:38
Yorkist artillery opened fire upon them. Oxford
was prepared for that, and his troops started
40:45
shifting to attack the left flank of the Yorkist
army. This put his main division directly
40:50
against Norfolk, and the artillery barrage
stopped to prevent friendly fire. Although
40:56
the Yorkists had numbers on their side, Oxford
widened his line on the march before two groups
41:02
finally clashed. The Tudor forces started
to push back their counterparts.
41:08
At the same time, Northumberland on Richard’s
left flank wasn’t moving in, either due
41:15
to betrayal or in fear that Stanley, who still
hadn’t made his move, might attack him from
41:20
the rear. Richard needed to turn his center
to descend from the hill, but it was moving
41:26
too slow and that allowed the Tudor rearguard
to move in and attack Norfolk from the right.
41:32
Seeing Henry’s Dragon banner, Richard decided
to charge against him with a thousand horsemen.
41:39
Initially, this charge pushed Henry’s forces
back, and the unit was close to panic. However,
41:44
the challenger to the throne stood firm, and
his bodyguards managed to stem the tide. Oxford
41:51
also supported his liege, sending a group
of pikemen to attack Richard from the left.
41:57
This attack started pushing the English king
towards the marshes in the southeast.
42:03
Simultaneously, Stanley sent his younger brother
William to join the battle, and he attacked
42:08
Richard’s group from the right. This was
the final straw. The knights around Richard
42:14
started dying, and soon he was killed with
a blow to his head. The news of his death
42:19
ended the battle. We have conflicting information
on the casualties, but it seems that they
42:25
were relatively low, as the fight took less
than 2 hours and was decided in the engagement
42:31
of two groups of knights.
After Henry dismissed his mercenaries, established
42:36
his rule over England and married Elizabeth
of York, it seemed as though the War of the
42:42
Roses was over. Indeed, many consider the
Battle at Bosworth Field to be the concluding
42:46
moment of this war, but Yorkist sympathisers
would not allow Henry’s rule to begin smoothly.
42:52
Though a vast number of Richard III’s noble
supporters had been killed at Bosworth field,
42:57
two of them - Francis, Viscount Lovell, Sir
Humphrey Stafford and his brother Sir Thomas
42:59
Stafford, had escaped and fled to the sanctuary
of Colchester Abbey. They had lost their lands
43:04
and titles, but still felt they had sufficient
power to rally the common people against the
43:10
new king. In the April of 1486 - eight months
after Bosworth, the trio left the sanctuary
43:15
of the abbey and began to incite armed rebellion.
Lovell travelled to the region of Yorkshire
43:22
around Middleham castle, which was a former
Yorkist stronghold, while the Stafford duo
43:28
went to Worcestershire in the West Midlands.
Henry VII was in Lincoln when he received
43:33
news of the budding Yorkist revolt, travelling
on his first royal procession.
43:38
With the large retinue he had with him, a
decision was made to deal with Lovell first,
43:45
as Henry feared the reaction of the traditionally
Yorkist areas that Lovell was rousing to rebellion.
43:50
By the time Henry reached the city of York
on April 23rd, the rebels were struggling
43:57
to gain any traction due to the lack of a
central Yorkist figure to rally behind. The
44:02
nail in the coffin was hammered in by Jasper
Tudor, who was sent to offer pardons to all
44:07
the rebels except for Lovell. This worked
out and, while the rebellion collapsed in
44:12
Yorkshire, Lovell eventually fled to Burgundy
and to the court of Edward IV’s sister - Margaret
44:18
of York. To the south, the Staffords had no
greater success in Worcestershire, and the
44:23
incipient rebellion utterly collapsed after
news arrived of Lovell’s flight and the
44:29
fact that Henry was coming with a large army.
With that, the 1486 rebellion fell apart,
44:34
but did inspire many other smaller bouts of
unrest elsewhere in the country, which were
44:40
quickly quelled.
44:46
Meanwhile in Burgundy, Lovell discovered that
he was not the only exiled Englishman present.
44:50
Many other Yorkists, including a Calais captain
known as Thomas David who had brought a part
44:56
of the Calais garrison with him, were present
and quickly became allies. Another prominent
45:01
Yorkist who had survived the Battle of Bosworth
was the Earl of Lincoln - Sir John de la Pole,
45:07
a nephew of Edward IV. After king Richard’s
death in 1485, Henry had imprisoned Edward
45:12
Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick - who was
a potential rival to the throne as the nearest
45:19
male heir of the Yorkist line. An Oxford priest
known as Richard Simons noticed a striking
45:25
physical resemblance between a ‘scholar’
called Lambert Simnel and the imprisoned Warwick,
45:32
and he was claimed to be the real thing. Lincoln
realised this was an opportunity began to
45:37
rally the Yorkist lords at Margaret’s court
to him. With financial backing in the form
45:43
of mercenaries and ships, the false Warwick,
Lovell, Lincoln and the other diehard Yorkists
45:48
in Burgundy now sailed for Ireland. The mercenaries
which had been hired were 2,000 Germans under
45:54
the command of a Captain Martin Schwartz,
whose men had gained a reputation as rapacious
46:01
and capable fighters in campaigns against
France.
46:06
Shortly after the arrival of Lovell and Lincoln
in Ireland on the 24th of May 1487, the false
46:13
Warwick was crowned as Edward VI in Christ
Church Cathedral, Dublin. The Irish lords,
46:19
who most likely sought to benefit from the
revolt by gaining independence, supported
46:25
this pretender king without hesitation. Other
dissatisfied Yorkists from as far away as
46:30
Jersey and Cornwall began to flock to Ireland
in hopes of assisting this restoration, and
46:35
the army therefore grew in size. King Henry
had been keeping an eye on the situation since
46:41
January and by April had come to the conclusion
that the movement could lead to an armed invasion.
46:47
Knowing that the prominent remaining Yorkists
were at first in Burgundy, Henry had moved
46:54
his court to Norwich in order to be best placed
to resist an invasion from the south or east.
46:58
However, when the King learned that the Irish
lords had accepted the pretender king upon
47:04
his arrival in the country, he moved his base
to the western city of Coventry. Aware that
47:08
an invasion was now imminent, Henry ordered
that warning beacons were to be made ready,
47:14
and the nobles were to begin assembling at
Kenilworth Castle, where the king was making
47:20
his final plans to face the foe.
47:24
After setting sail from Dublin on the 2nd
of June, the rebels came ashore on the Lancashire
47:29
coastline two days later near Peil Island
in Furness. As soon as they landed, they formally
47:34
declared for ‘Edward VI’ and then set
off inland almost immediately. That night,
47:40
they encamped at a place named Swarthmoor
near Ulverston, where more Yorkist forces
47:46
under Sir Thomas Broughton joined them. The
following day the rebel force set off for
47:50
Yorkshire, moving through Carnforth, where
they were further reinforced by contingents
47:56
sent by the anti-Tudor Harrington and Middleton
families. As they crossed the border into
48:00
Yorkshire itself, additional supporters joined
then, but the extremely rapid progress of
48:06
the revolt prevented them from rallying their
full forces. Lincoln now chose to write a
48:12
warning addressed to the lord mayor of York
in the name of ‘Edward VI’, stating that
48:17
his army intended to enter the city in order
to gather supplies. However, the divided citizens
48:23
did not know whose side to take, and they
eventually decided to remain loyal to Henry,
48:29
who had been generous to them in his short
time as king.
48:34
Lincoln soon received a reply from the city
leaders of York, stating that if he tried
48:40
to enter the city he would be resisted with
force. This was a setback, but on the 11th
48:45
of June this rebel force won a minor victory
against a Lancastrian force led by Sir Henry
48:51
Clifford, capturing his baggage train intact.
Realising that a rapid advance would be more
48:56
beneficial than a lengthy siege, the victorious
Lincoln made the decision to turn south instead.
49:02
Aware that the king would attempt to intercept
them on the march, a decision was made to
49:10
head for the Nottinghamshire town of Newark.
Henry was well served by his many scouts and
49:14
agents, quickly becoming aware of the rapid
rebel advance. Correctly anticipating their
49:20
destination, the king arrived at Nottingham
on June 14th. The rebels continued their march
49:25
south via Castleford and towards Rotherham,
reaching the town of Southwell by the 14th.
49:31
On the 15th, the two forces finally came near
one another at a small village known as East
49:40
Stoke. The rebel army which broke camp on
the morning of the 16th of June 1487 consisted
49:45
of around 8,000 men at arms, primarily consisting
of farmers and other common folk who had been
49:51
recruited on the march south. 2,000 more of
the highly trained German mercenaries were
49:57
also dispersed through the army, along with
a small Irish contingent.
50:03
When Henry’s men left camp that morning,
they continued to march down the Fosseway
50:11
in a column, rather than in battle formation,
and were spread across several miles of the
50:15
old Roman road. This was due to the fact that
the royal army was not aware that the rebels
50:20
were nearby - fully formed up for battle near
East Stoke. Leading vanguard of the army was
50:26
the Earl of Oxford, who quickly became aware
of the rebel position and now had to make
50:32
a crucial decision which would decide the
fate of the battle. Aware that a retreat would
50:37
mean a devastating blow to morale and standing
his ground would be a massive risk, Oxford
50:42
instead chose to attack after sending a message
about the situation to the king - who was
50:48
several miles behind. Putting faith in the
superior equipment and training of his 6,000
50:53
strong vanguard, Oxford marched towards the
10,000 rebel troops in battle order.
51:00
At 9AM the two sides drew ever closer to one
another and began an arrow exchange - the
51:08
royal troops inflicted heavy losses on the
badly armoured rebels at first, but then the
51:15
royal troops had to adjust their formation
as they reached the base of Burham Furlong
51:20
- a small hill on which the rebels had formed
up. As they did this, the largely unarmoured
51:25
Irish contingent charged down the hill as
they were being badly mauled by the arrow
51:31
fire. Hoping to prevent a catastrophic partial
attack, the rebel commanders committed the
51:36
entire army to this downhill charge, and they
contacted with the enemy, driving them back
51:41
due to superior numbers and momentum. As Oxford’s
hard pressed men were on the verge of completely
51:47
routing, the king’s main force arrived from
the rear and began feeding in fresh troops
51:53
to the line. The rebels, now hopelessly outnumbered,
found themselves gradually pushed back towards
51:58
the hill and then up it. Less than three hours
after the conflict had started, the rebel
52:04
line broke and their army routed.
52:10
As the rebels fled, the majority of them tried
to escape along a ravine leading from the
52:15
hill down to the River Trent, which was nearby.
Many of them were cornered by the king’s
52:20
troops here and were slain in their hundreds.
This grim place is still locally known as
52:26
the ‘Red Gutter’, as the slaughter was
apparently so great that the floor of the
52:31
ravine ran red with blood. The false Edward
VI - Lambert Simnel, was captured by a squire
52:36
and was surprisingly spared.
52:43
This was the final battle of the War of the
Roses, and the Tudor dynasty would rule England
52:49
for over a century after.
52:54
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53:11
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53:16
歌词与翻译
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重点词汇
开始练习
| 词汇 | 含义 |
|---|---|
|
king /kɪŋ/ B1 |
|
|
battle /ˈbætəl/ B1 |
|
|
war /wɔːr/ A2 |
|
|
army /ˈɑːrmi/ B1 |
|
|
throne /θroʊn/ B2 |
|
|
duke /duːk/ C1 |
|
|
victory /ˈvɪktəri/ B1 |
|
|
defeat /dɪˈfiːt/ B1 |
|
|
rebellion /rɪˈbeljən/ B2 |
|
|
crown /kraʊn/ B1 |
|
|
heir /ɛr/ B2 |
|
|
exile /ˈɛɡzaɪl/ B2 |
|
|
siege /siːdʒ/ C1 |
|
|
alliance /əˈlaɪəns/ B1 |
|
|
command /kəˈmænd/ B1 |
|
|
reign /reɪn/ B2 |
|
|
conquer /ˈkɒŋkər/ B2 |
|
|
rule /ruːl/ A2 |
|
|
treaty /ˈtriːti/ B2 |
|
重点语法结构
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相关歌曲